Republic of South Africa. Pretoria administrative ; Cape Town legislative ; Bloemfontein judicial. The national flag, adopted inconsists of a blue-black triangle placed vertical to the hoist and bordered in gold-yellow. Bands of red, white, green, white, and blue appear horizontally. Two anthems are currently in use: The South African rand r is a paper currency of cents.

It is used throughout the South African monetary area. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cents and 1 rand, and notes of 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 rand. New Year's Day, 1 January; Republic Day, 31 May; Kruger Day, 10 October; Day of the Vow, 16 December; Christmas25 December; Goodwill Day, 26 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday and Ascension; Family Day is a movable secular holiday.

Comparatively, the area occupied by South Africa is slightly less than twice the size of the state of Texas. Considered as a whole, South Africa extends 1, km 1, mi ne — sw and 1, km mi se — nw. It is bounded on the n by Botswana and Zimbabwe formerly Rhodesiaon the ne by Mozambique and Swaziland, on the e by the Indian Oceanon the s by the confluence of the Indian and Atlantic oceans, on the w by the Atlantic Oceanand on the nw by Namibia. South Africa also controls two small islands, Prince Edward and Marion, which lie some 1, km 1, mi southeast of Cape Town.

South Africa's capital city, Pretoria, is located in the northeastern part of the country. Parts of Johannesburg are more than 1, m 6, ft above sea level. There are three major zones: The land rises steadily from west to east to the Drakensberg Mountains part of the Great Escarpmentthe tallest of which is Mt.

The coastal belt of the west and south ranges between and m and ft above sea level and is very fertile, producing citrus fruits and grapes, particularly in the western Cape.

North of the coastal belt stretch the Little and the Great Karoo highlands, which are bounded by mountains, are semiarid to arid, and merge into sandy wastes that ultimately join the arid Kalahari. The high grass prairie, or veld, of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal is famous for its deposits of gold and silver; other minerals are found in the Transvaal's bush veld. From the Drakensberg, the land falls toward the Indian Ocean in the rolling hills and valleys of Natalwhich are covered with rich vegetation and, near the coast, subtropical plants, including sugarcane.

The two most important rivers draining the interior plateau are the Orange with its tributary the Vaalwhich flows into the Atlantic Ocean, and the Limpopo, which empties into the Indian Ocean through Mozambique. Of the fast-flowing rivers with steeply graded courses that produce spectacular waterfalls, the largest is the Tugela, which rises in the Mont-aux-Sources and flows swiftly to the Indian Ocean.

South Africa lies almost wholly within the southern temperate zone, and its climate is more equable than that of corresponding northern latitudes because of its surrounding waters. Temperature differentials between east and west coasts stem from the influences, respectively, of the warm Mozambique Agulhas Current and the cold Benguela Current.

Temperatures are cooler in the highlands: On the high veld there are sharp differences of temperature between day and night, but there is less daily fluctuation nearer the coast. Rainfall is unpredictable in large parts of the country, and prolonged droughts are a serious restriction on farming in such areas. Much of South Africa gets its rain in the summer months, but the western coastal belt is a winter rain area.

Along the Cape south coast, rain falls during both seasons. The variety of South Africa's climate and altitude accounts for its diversified flora and fauna. Major vegetation zones include the forest and palm belt of the east, south, and southwest coasts; the temperate grasslands veld of the eastern portion of the interior plateau; the desert and semidesert Karoo vegetation of the western interior; and the bushveld savanna of the Kalahari and the northeast. Of the natural orders of plants in the world, over are represented and South Africa has over 25, species of flora, including a floral kingdom found nowhere else.

There are species of euphorbia, about different kinds of heath in the Cape Province alone, and more than species of grass.

Wild flowers including the protea, South Africa's national flower grow in great profusion throughout the Cape region. Aardvark, jackal, lion, elephant, wild buffalo, hippopotamus, and various kinds of antelope are still found in some parts of the country. In the great game parks, animals may be seen living in natural surroundings. So extensive is the variety both of smaller mammals and of plants that they have not yet all been identified.

The number of different kinds of birds is estimated at well over ; that of snakes, The number of species of insects is estimated at 40, and there are about 1, kinds of fish.

Recent industrialization and urbanization have taken their toll on the South African environment, as have such agricultural practices as veld fires, overgrazing of livestock, and intensive use of pesticides. Soil erosion and desertification are two more significant environmental issues in South Africa.

Three hundred to four hundred million tons of soil per year are lost. The country's limited water resources have been impaired by mineralization, eutrophication, and acidic mine drainage. The country's cities produce about 4. Air pollution in urban areas stems primarily from coal burning and motor vehicle exhausts.

The government has taken steps to address these issues: Johannesburg was the site of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, and South Africa is seen as a leader of the developing world on issues such as climate change, conservation, and biodiversity. Pursuant to a government "white paper" about environmental conservation policy, approved ina comprehensive environmental protection bill was given parliamentary approval in It included development of a comprehensive technology for treating sewage and industrial effluents, surveys of threatened natural habitats, research on marine pollution, monitoring of atmospheric pollutants, and a program of environmental education in the public schools.

According to a report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources IUCNthe number of threatened species included 29 types of mammals, 36 species of birds, 20 types of reptiles, 21 species of amphibians, 49 species of fish, 18 types of mollusks, species of other invertebrates, and 75 species of plants. Threatened species in South Africa include the riverine rabbit, Cape Mountain zebra, Treur River barb, and several species of butterfly.

Twelve species have become extinct, including the cape warthog, bluebuck, Burchell's zebra, and quagga. Some rare Addo elephants are protected in Addo Elephant National Park, 56 km 35 mi north of Port Elizabeth; Bontebok National Park near Swellendam, Cape Province is a habitat for the last surviving herd of bontebok antelope; Mountain Zebra National Park near Cradock, in Cape Province is a refuge for several hundred rare mountain zebras and springbok; and Kruger National Park, in northeastern Transvaal, has almost every species of South African wildlife in its natural habitat.

The population of South Africa in was estimated by the United Nations UN at 46,, which placed it at number 27 in population among the nations of the world. There were 96 males for every females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for — was expected to be 0. The projected population for the year was 47, The administrative capital, Pretoria had a population of 1, in that year.

Johannesburg, the largest city and the commercial and industrial center of the country, had a metropolitan population of 3,; Cape Town, the legislative capital, had a population of 3, Other major cities include East Rand, 3,; Durban, 2,; West Rand, 1,; Sasolburg, 1,; and Port Elizabeth, ,; Bloemfontein, the judicial capital, approximatelyThe UN estimated that The AIDS epidemic causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers life expectancy.

Preference was given in the past to immigrants from those countries from which South Africa's present white population is derived. Between andthe number of immigrants averaged about 37, annually, and the number of emigrants about 12, Between — 84, some 72, Zimbabwe residents emigrated to South Africa. Afterimmigration fell, and, perhaps as a consequence, the white population actually declined between — Of the 63, immigrants between — 91, 16, came from other African countries, 16, from the United Kingdom16, from other European countries, and 14, from other parts of the world.

Emigration came to 46, during these years. Init was estimated that between 1. South Africa was providing informal sanctuary to perhapsrefugees from Mozambique inmost of whom repatriated by Sinceone of South Africa's main challenges has been the increasing cross-border migration. In addition to the large number of undocumented migrants that enter the country, as ofthe country was hosting some 55, asylum seekers, only 8, of whom had been recognized as refugees.

Also inxenophobia was on the rise, with 30 refugees and asylum seekers having been killed in attacks on foreigners since The number of migrants living in South Africa in was 1,, including refugees.

In there were 27, refugees andasylum seekers. Over 7, refugees were from Somalia5, were from Angolaand the remainder from the DROC. Asylum seekers were from Zimbabwe, the DROC, Somalia, Nigeriaand Pakistan. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

Legal separation of the racial communities was a cornerstone of government policy through most of the 20th century. This racial policy, often called apartheid but referred to in South African government circles as "separate development," created and maintained one of the most rigidly segregated societies in the world. During the s and s, enforcement of separatist policies eased, but the division of the population into four racial communities, Africans blackswhites, coloreds, and Asians, remained.

The rules of apartheid were formally abolished inbut most citizens still describe themselves as one of the four traditional categories. This black population includes a large number of peoples, including the Zulu, Xhosa, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho, Tswana, Shangana-Tsongo, and Swazi. Whites account for about 9. The Cape Coloureds, accounting for about 8. Asians make up about 2. There are a few thousand Khoikhoi within the country, an indigenous nomadic people who are primarily sheep and cattle herders.

The interim constitution adopted in recognized 11 languages as official at the national level: AfrikaansEnglish, Ndebele, Sepedi, Sesotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu.

All were still recognized officially in The African languages spoken in South Africa are of the Niger-Congo family. In general, English is more commonly spoken in the cities, and Afrikaans in the rural areas. Afrikaans is a variant of the Dutch spoken by the 17th-century colonists, and it includes lexical items, phrases, and syntactic structures from Malay, Portuguese, the Bantu group, Hottentot, and other African languages, as well as from English, French, and German.

Afrikaans has borrowed from English words such as gelling gallonjaart yardsjieling shillingand trippens three pencewhile English has taken over kraal, veld, and other Afrikaans words. Afrikaans is the primary language of about The most widely spoken primary language is Zulu, spoken by about Xhosa follows with about Sepedi is spoken by 9. The Dutch Reformed churches make up about 6. The next-largest denomination was the Roman Catholic Church at 7. There are a number of Pentecostal and charismatic churches as well as congregations of Greek Orthodox and Seventh-Day Adventists.

There are very small numbers of JewsBuddhists, Confucians, and Rastafarians. There are some who combine traditional practices with Christianity. Though there is no state religion, Christian holidays are officially observed. Relations between most religious groups is amicable. The South African Council of Churches is an interfaith and interracial groups that promotes mutual understanding among religions and maintains good relations with the government.

South Africa's transportation network is among the most modern and extensive on the continent. Inthere were an estimatedkmmi of national and provincial roads, of which 57, km 35, mi were paved, including 2, km 1, mi of expressways. There were 4, automobiles and 2, commercial vehicles in InSouth Africa's railroad network totaled 20, km 12, miall of it narrow gauge.

Of that total, 10, km 6, mi were electrified. Inthe South African merchant fleet consisted of two ships of 1, GRT or more, with a total volume of 31, GRT. South Africa's seven ports, owned and operated by the government, include the deepwater ports of Durban, Port Elizabeth, and Table Bay at Cape Town ; other ports with good facilities are Richards Bay, Saldanha Bay, East London, and Mosselbaai or Mossel Bay. Airports in totaled an estimatedof which had paved runways as of The government-owned South African Airways operates both international and domestic flights.

Jan Smuts Airport, near Johannesburg, is the major international airport; other international airports are located at Cape Town and Durban. Inabout 9.

Fossil skulls suggest that South Africa may have been one of the earliest scenes of human evolution. Little is known of the original settlers, but when Europeans first arrived, there were two distinct groups of peoples — the Bushmen, primitive nomadic hunters of the western desert upland country, and the Hottentots, a pastoral people who occupied the southern and eastern coastal areas.

Before adBantu-speaking peoples entered the Transvaal from the north, settling territories in the north and east. Inthe Portuguese sailor Bartholomeu Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope, and on Christmas Day ofVasco da Gama discovered Natal.

The first European settlement at the Cape was made in under Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Co. Because there was a shortage of farm labor, the Dutch imported slaves from West Africa, Madagascarand the East Indies, and because of the scarcity of European women, mixed marriages took place, eventually producing the Cape Coloured people. Huguenot settlers joined the small Dutch settlement in Continued demands for meat and relatively poor agricultural production encouraged the development of cattle farming, which in turn led to the need for more grazing land.

Settlements were established on the coastal plain, along the valleys, and on the Great Karoo. The European population multiplied, but the Bushmen and Hottentots declined in numbers. The first contacts with Bantu-speaking Africans were made along the Great Fish River, which, inthe Cape authorities proclaimed the boundary between the colonists and the Africans. The first serious clash came inwhen invading Xhosa tribesmen were driven back across the river border.

Three more frontier wars were fought by InBritain occupied the Cape, and inthe area was ceded to the United Kingdom by the Treaty of Vienna. The free Coloured inhabitants of the Cape were given the same legal and political status as whites, and inslavery was abolished. Because of severe droughts and in reaction to British policy and administration, about 6, Boers Dutch farmers undertook the Great Trek in — 36, migrating northward into the present Orange Free State and the Transvaal.

Some crossed the Drakensberg Mountains into Natal. The British annexed Natal in and extended their rule over Kaffraria inGriqualand West inand Zululand and Tongaland in The Transvaal was annexed in but returned to independence after a revolt in — 81, culminating in a British defeat by the Boers at Majuba Hill.

InSwaziland also was declared independent. After a war between the Boers and Basutos, the British proclaimed Basutoland now Lesotho a British territory, and init became a British protectorate. The British granted local self-government to the Cape in and to Natal in Meanwhile, the spread of European settlements into areas occupied by Africans led to the setting aside of large native reserves and to the development of separate white and black communities.

Inindentured Indians were brought into Natal to work on the sugarcane plantations; bywhen India halted the emigration because of what it called "poor working conditions," more thanIndians had come to South Africa as contract laborers. It was in South Africa, while pursuing the Indians' claims of injustice, that Mohandas Mahatma Gandhi, then a young lawyer, developed his philosophy of nonviolent resistance. The discovery around of diamonds along the Orange and Vaal rivers and in the Kimberley district led to an influx of foreigners and brought prosperity to the Cape and the Orange Free State.

Railways were built and trade increased. The discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in brought in thousands of additional newcomers and made Transvaal potentially the wealthiest state. Tension between the Boers and outsiders attracted to Transvaal was accentuated by an unsuccessful attempt to capture Johannesburg by Dr. Leander Starr Jameson Jameson Raid in — 96 and culminated in the South African or Boer War in — After a desperate struggle against the larger British forces, the Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State gave up their independence by the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May but shortly thereafter were granted self-government by the British.

In a convention during — 9, the leaders of the Afrikaners as the Boers were now calledtogether with those from the Cape and Natal, drafted a constitution for a united South Africa that passed the British Parliament as the South Africa Act in and became effective on 31 May The constitution provided for a union of the four territories or provinces, to be known as the Union of South Africa.

Inthe Union Parliament passed the Bantu Land Act, setting aside 8. The Union of South Africa fought with the Allies in World War I, signed the Treaty of Versaillesand became a member of the League of Nations. Inthe League gave South Africa a mandate over the former German colony of South West Africa now generally called Namibiawhich lasted untilwhen South Africa refused to recognize UN authority over the area and regarded it as an integral part of the country.

Ina British declaration granted South Africa national autonomy and equal legal status with the United Kingdom. Mining and industrialization advanced in the period between the two wars.

More intensive exploitation of the wealth of the country led to better living standards. South Africa sent troops to fight the Nazis in World War IIalthough many Afrikaners favored neutrality. Inthe National Party NP took power, influencing the general character of life in South Africa and, in particular, enforcing its policies of apartheid, or racial separation officially called "separate development" after of whites and nonwhites. The republican constitution did not deviate substantially from the former one, the only major change being the substitution of a president for the monarch as the head of state.

As a result of objections from nonwhite members of the Commonwealth of Nations to South Africa's presence, South Africa withdrew its application for continued Commonwealth membership in The immediate period surrounding the creation of the republic was one of mounting pressures applied to the government because of its apartheid policies.

Inblack unrest swelled to the point where a state of emergency was declared. On 21 Marcha black demonstration was staged against the "pass laws," laws requiring blacks to carry "reference books," or internal passports, thus enabling the government to restrict their movement into urban areas. The demonstration resulted in the killing at Sharpeville of 69 black protesters by government troops and provided the touchstone for local black protests and for widespread expressions of outrage in international forums.

During — 64, the government acted to stiffen its control over blacks living in white areas. After 1 Maythe General Law Amendment Act allowed the government to hold people for consecutive day periods without trial the length was decreased to 15 days in Inthe Suppression of Communism Amendment Bill renewed the government's authority to detain for security reasons persons who had completed prison sentences.

As the Portuguese colonial empire disbanded and blacks came to the fore in Mozambique and Angola during the mids, South African troops joined the Angolan civil conflict, in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent a Soviet-backed faction from coming to power, but then withdrew from Angola in March South Africa subsequently launched sporadic attacks on Angola which supported insurgents seeking to end South African rule over Namibia and Mozambique and aided insurgencies in the two former Portuguese territories; these operations and other raids into Botswana, Lesotho, and Zimbabwe were apparently in response to the aid and political support given by South Africa's neighbors to the African National Congress ANCa black nationalist group.

Beginning in Junethe worst domestic confrontation since Sharpeville took place in Sowetoon the outskirts of Johannesburg, where blacks violently protested the compulsory use of Afrikaans in schools; suppression of the riots by South African police left at least blacks dead and 1, injured. The Afrikaans requirement was subsequently modified. During the late s, new protest groups and leaders emerged among the young blacks.

After one of these leaders, year-old Steven Biko, died on 12 September while in police custody, there were renewed protests. As a result, on 4 November, the UN Security Council approved a mandatory arms embargo against South Africa — the first ever imposed on a member nation.

As ofthe government had designated four of the ten black homelands as "sovereign" states: Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkeiand Venda. All members of the ethnic groups associated with these homelands automatically lost their South African citizenship; the government's stated intent to grant independence to the remaining six homelands meant that the vast majority of South Africa's blacks would eventually lose their South African citizenship.

In an effort to conciliate nonwhites and international opinion, the government scrapped many aspects of apartheid in the mids, including the "pass laws" and the laws barring interracial sexual relations and marriage. These measures failed to meet black aspirations, however, and as political violence mounted, in Julythe government imposed a state of emergency in 36 magisterial districts, embracing nearly all of the urban black population, which lasted over seven months.

During this time, 7, persons were detained and people died in political violence, by government count. A new, nationwide state of emergency was imposed in Junewith police and the military exercising extraordinary powers of arrest and detention. At least 4, and possibly as many as 10, were detained inincluding over 1, aged 18 or under. InSouth Africa and Mozambique signed an agreement by which each country pledged not to aid the antigovernment forces in the other country; also inSouth Africa signed an agreement under which it withdrew forces that it had sent into southern Angola in an effort to forestall aid to guerrillas in Namibia.

However, the government continued to hold its neighbors responsible for ANC violence, and South African raids into Botswana, Zambiaand Zimbabwe were conducted during — Inthe government announced that it was withdrawing troops that it had sent into Angola to aid the rebels fighting against the Angolan government, which was supported by Cuban and Soviet troops.

In Julythe government cracked down on the United Democratic Front UDFan umbrella organization of over civic, sports, church, trade union, women's, professional, youth and student bodies opposed to apartheid. Some 22 of its leaders were charged with treason and many more were forced to go underground.

The government banned 17 antiapartheid organizations, including the UDF and the largest trade union, on 24 February Repression increased throughout andas did protest against state policies. Alternative newspapers, New Nation and Weekly Mail, were prohibited briefly from publishing. Various antiapartheid leaders were assassinated by secret hit squads identified with the police and military intelligence.

Others were detained and otherwise restricted; still others were served with banning orders. In retaliation, protest strikes and demonstrations mounted, as did organization efforts among antiapartheid activists. InPresident P. Botha resigned as head of the NP after a "mild stroke" in January. He was replaced by F. After the general election, held 6 September, de Klerk was elected to a five-year term as president.

De Klerk launched a series of reforms in September that led speedily to the release of ANC leader Nelson Mandela and others on 10 February The ANC and other resistance militants, including the Communist Party, were legalized. Mandela had been in prison 27 years and had become a revered symbol of resistance to apartheid.

At that point, the ANC began to organize within South Africa. Government began "talks about talks" with the ANC and in Augustthe ANC suspended its armed struggle. Most leaders of the ANC returned from exile. Still, fighting continued, largely between ANC activists and supporters of the Zulu-dominated Inkatha Freedom Party, strongest in Natal province. More than 6, people were killed in political violence in andmany victims of fighting provoked by a "third force" of operatives employed by hardliners within the Defense Force and the police.

Inde Klerk introduced and parliament passed measures to repeal laws that had institutionalized apartheid policies — the Land Act andthe Group Areas Actand the Population Registration Act A number of repressive security acts were repealed as well. In July, the ANC convened its first full conference in South Africa in 30 years. They elected Mandela president and Cyril Ramaphosa the secretary general. The ailing Oliver Tambo moved from president to a new post, National Chairman. Meanwhile, negotiations continued over constitutional changes and plans for nonracial elections and the transition to majority rule.

Numerous parties engaged in a Convention for a Democratic South Africa CODESA starting in December On 14 Septembergovernment, the ANC and Inkatha signed a pact to end factional fighting. Other groups signed on, but it hardly stemmed the high levels of violence.

The militant right wing refused to cooperate with any negotiations and agreements. In order to strengthen his negotiating hand, de Klerk called a whites-only referendum for 17 March By May, however, CODESA talks bogged down. The ANC mounted a series of mass protests against the stalemated CODESA talks. After 42 residents were horribly murdered at Boipatong Township by Zulu hostel dwellers allegedly assisted by police, the ANC withdrew from CODESA. On 7 September, 24 ANC supporters were killed by the Ciskei army troops as they marched in protest on the homeland's capital.

Later that month, negotiations began again between government and the ANC. A 26 September summit between Mandela and de Klerk produced a Record of Understanding that met several key ANC demands. But this angered KwaZulu Chief Mangosuthu G. Buthelezi, so he withdrew from the talks. In Februarygovernment and the ANC reached agreement on plans for a transition to democracy.

Multiparty negotiations followed in April. An interim parliament was to be elected for a five-year period after a general election in April The new parliament would also serve as a constituent assembly to iron out details of a new constitution.

The broad guidelines were agreed upon by the government, the ANC, and other parties in late December A transitional Executive Council to oversee some aspects of government, including security, came into existence in December Inkatha, led by Buthelezi, and the right wing Conservative Party refused to participate. The Conservative Party and Inkatha boycotted the talks on multiparty government. But just a few days before the scheduled elections, Inkatha agreed to participate.

White conservatives tried to hold out for an Afrikaner homeland, yet the white right was divided on whether to participate in preelection talks, in the election itself, or whether to take up arms as a last resort. There were inefficiencies and some claims of electoral fraud and intimidation, especially by the ANC against Inkatha in Natal province. The elections proceeded relatively peacefully and with great enthusiasm. They were pronounced "free and fair" by international observers and the independent Electoral Commission.

The results left the ANC as the major vote getter with The NP gained ANC, thus, was awarded of the seats in parliament. It was the governing party in all but two of the nine regions. Mandela became president and the ANC's Thabo Mbeki and the NP's de Klerk, deputy presidents. Even Buthelezi was persuaded to take a ministerial post in the cabinet.

In Maythe Constitutional Assembly convened to lay the groundwork for the new constitution. All parties were included in the initial sessions, but Inkatha boycotted the Assembly's drafting of an interim constitution when its demand for international mediation on regional autonomy was not met. At the same time, violent clashes between Inkatha and ANC supporters flared anew in the Natal Province.

South Africa held local elections on 1 Novemberalthough last-minute changes to the interim constitution allowed for seven provinces — including Kwa-Zulu Natal — to delay elections until The ANC also swept the provincial elections, with the NP winning the largest minority share of the vote.

Bishop Desmond Tutu convened a Truth and Reconciliation Commission in early to expose apartheid atrocities committed in the years of white rule. Although those who refused to cooperate with the commission could be subject to criminal penalties, the commission granted immunity and amnesty to those who admitted their roles in apartheid crimes. Testimony in a court case also linked death squads to the highest levels of government, including the prime minister's office.

Inthe Constitutional Court ratified the new constitution after rejecting a first submitted draft in The new constitution was inaugurated in February It granted a strong central government with some limited powers vested in the provinces. Inkatha, which boycotted the drafting sessions to the end, accepted the Constitutional Court's decree. The NP withdrew from the government of national unity immediately after ratification of the constitution to take its place as the official opposition party.

De Klerk, who would leave politics in Augustalso resigned his post to head the opposition party. Bythe exuberance of the new constitutional era and two years of economic expansion had given way to uncertainty in the months following ratifications.

South Africa was struggling with the new political structure, a flagging economy, revolutions of the Truth and Reconciliation, and a crime wave seemingly out of control. The latter was deemed by citizens as the number one problem facing the new government. The murder rate had grown to ten times higher than the murder rate in the United States.

Robbery, assault, and carjackings had left downtown Johannesburg in ruins, and vigilante groups were prevalent throughout the nation.

The high crime rate had deterred foreign investment and affected the tourist industry as well. Early inNelson Mandela, president of South Africa sincedelivered his final "state of the nation" address. The vote in June passed without a single political killing and was quickly embraced by all political parties.

Despite the increase in crime in the nation, the second parliamentary elections held in June were peaceful and generally fair. Thabo Mbeki was sworn in as South Africa's second democratically elected president at a glittering inauguration ceremony, which saw Nelson Mandela step down after steering the country away from apartheid rule and oppression.

However, the one-sided vote in favor of ANC was itself troubling. Critiques noted that the dominance of the ANC had the coloring of a de facto one party state.

The dominance of the ANC was clearly illustrated in the 14 April elections. The African National Congress ANC of President Thabo Mbeki, which had been in power since the end of the apartheid system inwas reelected with an increased majority. The ANC obtained The main opposition party, the Democratic Alliance, also obtained an increased percentage on the national ballot; The New National Party, a descendant of the ruling party of the apartheid era, lost most of their support, dropping from 6.

In the elections it received Many of their supporters were unhappy with the party's alliance with the ANC. The Independent Democrats surprised many observers by obtaining more votes than the New National Party, becoming the fifth-largest party. The Inkatha Freedom Party which obtained 7.

The United Democratic Movement also lost support winning only 2. Several other smaller parties also contested in these elections. Overall the elections were deemed free and fair. The next presidential election was due April and the next parliamentary elections were due inas well.

The first four years of Mbeki in office were marked by an active foreign policy and controversy over his AIDS policy. Along with Botswana, South Africa sent peacekeeping forces to Lesotho in to quell rioting and civil unrest following the elections there. Subsequently, the government played host to the belligerents of Africa's "first world war" in the Great Lakes region, helping them reach power sharing and peace agreements in December and April In addition to sending peacekeeping troops to the DROC, South Africa also took the lead in providing peace-keepers for Burundi in early following peace negotiations by Nelson Mandela in that country.

Mbeki has been one of four African heads of state to champion the New Partnership for Africa's Development NEPADa continent-wide initiative that promises accountable governance in exchange for donor resources and technical assistance. South Africa hosted the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in August However strong this record, it has been tarnished by Mbeki's feeble response to the flawed March elections in Zimbabwe, and by his de-linking of HIV — the virus that the world scientific community says causes AIDS — from the disease itself.

His government's reluctance to introduce anti-retroviral therapy widely and affordably has damaged his credibility at home and abroad.

Although South Africa's economy is highly developed, the exclusionary nature of apartheid and distortions caused in part by the country's international isolation until the s left major weaknesses. As of the economy was in a process of transition as the government seeks to address the inequities of apartheid, stimulate growth, and create jobs.

South Africa is increasingly becoming integrated into the international system, and foreign investment has increased dramatically. Still, the economic disparities between population groups are expected to persist for many years, remaining an area of priority for the government.

The terms of a new constitution adopted in February were hammered out prior to the 27 — 29 April election. There is a seat National Assembly chosen by proportional representation nationally and from regional lists. Following the implementation of the new constitution on 3 Februarythe former senate was disbanded and replaced by the National Council of Provinces with essentially no change in membership and party affiliations — although the new institution's responsibilities have been changed somewhat by the new constitution.

Of 90 members, 10 come from each province or region and selected by each provincial assembly. The members serve as both a legislature and a constituent assembly. They also elect the president and deputy presidents.

Study in South Africa - Milpark Education

Elections for the National Assembly and National Council of Provinces were last held 2 June with the next to be held by 2 August Although the degree of autonomy and aud nzd exchange rate yahoo level of power given to the regions remains contentious with the IFP's longstanding grievance about the way power is devalued to the regions, the nine provinces have assemblies based on the total number of votes cast in the general election.

Thus, the number of members each provincial legislature has depends on the number of votes cast divided by 50, The executive branch of the provincial governments is, like the legislatures, allocated proportionally. The early division in the South African party system was between those who promoted Afrikaner nationalism and those Afrikaans-speaking and English-speaking persons who worked together toward goals on which both sides could agree.

When General Short term investment options south africa Botha formed the first cabinet inhe combined the moderate Afrikaners and English into the South African National Party, which confronted an English-speaking opposition.

Soon afterward, however, General J. Hertzog formed the National Party NPdedicated to placing the interests of South Africa above those of the British Empire and to developing the Afrikaner group until it was as powerful as were English South Africans.

Hard-pressed by Hertzog's NP inGeneral Jan Christiaan Smuts, who succeeded Botha, fused the South African National Party with the English-speaking Unionists, establishing the alignment of the English-speaking, except those in the Labour Party LPwith moderate Afrikaners. The LP allied itself with Hertzog, who achieved office in Together they carried through the so-called civilized labor policy, designed to safeguard a wide area in the economy for white labor.

Economic crisis during the Depression forced a new alignment of parties that brought Hertzog and Smuts into coalition in and fusion in the United Party UP in Malan broke with Hertzog in to form the "purified" NP, dedicated to a more exclusive and radical Afrikaner nationalism than Hertzog had ever preached. When World War II broke out, Hertzog wished to remain neutral. Smuts swung the House of Assembly in support of the Allies and became prime minister with the support of all English-speaking South Africans forex trading hours philippines a substantial group of moderate Afrikaners in the UP.

Malan won the election, the first whose campaign was waged chiefly on the racial issue. The sharpest division between the two parties arose from NP efforts to remove the Coloureds from the common voting roll. The basic division in the party system was between the NP, which favored the policy of apartheid, or totally separate development of the different races, and the UP, which favored social and residential segregation but economic integration.

The members of the NP were mainly Afrikaans-speaking and those of the UP were English-speaking, but each party had a considerable number of members of the other language group. Beginning inthe Nationalists implemented excel spreadsheet option pricing program of apartheid.

Between andthe NP won nine successive parliamentary elections under four party leaders: Malan in ; Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, ; Balthazar Johannes Vorster, ; and Pieter W. Botha — Vorster, who succeeded Verwoerd as prime minister after the assassination of Verwoerd inleft the office in to become president.

In the following year, however, he was forced to resign because of a political scandal involving the misappropriation of government funds to finance clandestine political and propaganda activities in the United States, Norwayand other Western countries.

The Nationalists' program met with little effective opposition from the UP, which formally disbanded in In that forex exchange opening times, leaders of the UP and its splinter group, the Democratic Party, which had formed inestablished the New Republic Party NRPwith support from English-speaking voters in Natal and the Eastern Cape.

The NRP endorsed continuing white rule, but with a softening of apartheid. In the same year, another merger produced the Progressive Federal Party PFPwhich drew its main backing from English-speaking voters in urban areas and stood for universal suffrage within a federal system, with guarantees of minority rights.

In the elections, the NP increased its representation from in to seats. The PFP fell from 26 to 19 seats; the NRP lost 4 of its 5 seats. The PFP dissolved itself in favor of the Democratic Party, which took 33 seats. The Conservative Party CP opposed any form of power sharing with nonwhites.

It was led by a former cabinet minister, Andries Treurnicht. The CP became the official opposition party after winning 23 seats in the elections and 39 in Several Coloured and Indian parties participated in the August elections for the houses of Parliament created for their respective ethnic groups.

The Labour Party, a Coloured party headed by the Rev. Allan Hendrickse, won 76 of the 80 directly elected seats; it opposed the new constitution, advocated repeal of all discriminatory measures, and said that it was campaigning on behalf of all nonwhites but was vague on the question of whether it would accept a unitary state governed on the principle of one-person, one-vote.

All five Indian parties participating in the how to make money on cashel favored protection of minority rights and rejected government in a unitary state on the basis of one-person, one-vote. The National People's Party won 18 and Solidarity 17 of the 40 directly elected seats; the two parties formed a governing alliance in January Inthe government repealed a law that had prohibited people of different racial groups from belonging to the same political party.

Several extraparliamentary organizations of Africans and Asians have formed on a national basis. The African National Congress ANC and the South African Indian Congress have cooperated with each other and have sought to cooperate with white liberal organizations. Banned inthe ANC turned from its earlier tradition of nonviolence toward sabotage and other terrorist acts. Inthe government offered to legalize the group if it renounced violence. In and onward, talks were held outside the country between the ANC and diverse groups of white South Africans.

Notable among the more militant African groups was the Pan-Africanist Congress PACcan i buy nasdaq shares in my isa broke away from the ANC in and was banned in The ANC and PAC had been recognized by the UN General Assembly as "the authentic representatives" of the people of South Africa.

During the s, a loose coalition of African student groups known as the Black Consciousness Movement developed under the leadership of Steven Biko. The United Democratic Front UDF was founded inclaiming at its peak to be a multiracial alliance of nearly seven hundred groups representing nearly two million people. It dissolved itself in Augustafter having continued resistance to apartheid while the ANC was in exile.

Considerable ferment occurred among political parties in the run-up to the elections. The Inkatha John steinbeck stock market crash Party IFP headed by Zulu Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi, at first had a cozy relationship with the NP, but that dissolved once the NP began negotiating in earnest with the ANC.

Not until just days before the elections in did the IFP agree to run candidates. The Freedom Front FF became the electoral vehicle for Gen. Constand Viljoen, former head of the Defense Force. He contested the results 2. The FF sought to work within the system to achieve the creation of an autonomous Afrikaner state. In February the ANC allowed minority parties to participate in the government for five years after the end of apartheid.

Also in February the first nonwhites entered the cabinet, thus broadening the base of the NP. The elections resulted in an overwhelming victory for the ANC, headed by Nelson Mandela, as did the local elections. The new government included six ministers from the NP and the IFP. As of the ANC, the IFP, and the NP constituted a Government of National Unity.

The remaining seats went to 12 other parties as follows: In the third post-apartheid parliamentary elections inthe ANC won decisively, taking of parliamentary seats The remaining seats etrade price type options to 11 maingear shift super stock review parties as follows: The next parliamentary buy nigerian stocks online were scheduled to take place in Historically, the four provinces — Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State — dealt chiefly with local matters, such as hospitals, roads, municipal government, and educational matters that can be classified as general affairs applying to all population groups.

The provinces receive annual subsidies from the national government. Elected provincial councils were abolished in and replaced by regional services councils, with representation by local authorities. Executive power in each province is exercised by an administrator and executive committee appointed by the state president and responsible to the national government.

Under the constitution, local government was to be assigned to the three parliamentary houses, as applicable, or, in regard to general affairs, to the Department of Constitutional Development and Planning. However, residents in each segregated residential area, including blacks, elected primary local authorities, who rendered certain services as well as represented their constituents at the provincial level. As far as local government and administration for whites were concerned, elected municipal councils were retained.

The local affairs of blacks living in the six black homelands within the Republic of South Africa were administered by the respective homeland governments. Under the post election arrangements, nine provincial governments were established Northern Province, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Free State, Kwazulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, Western Cape, Northern Cape, and North-West. Their legislatures were determined in size and party representation by audio typist jobs from home australia representation.

The actual distribution of governmental powers and responsibilities has to be worked out by the constituent assembly. A transitional local government arrangement prevails. The local election results were as follows: The remaining few parties, including the Inkatha Freedom Party, split the remainder of the votes.

South Africa has a unified judicial system. The Supreme Court has a supreme appellate division and provincial and local divisions with both original and appellate jurisdictions. The Court of Appeals, with its seat in Bloemfontein, the judicial capital, normally consists of the chief justice and a variable number of appellate shasta livestock auction yard cottonwood california. Special superior courts may be constituted to try security cases, and there were, inmagistrates' offices vested with certain judicial as well as administrative powers.

Judges are appointed by the state president. There were no nonwhite judges as of The common law of the Republic of South Africa is Roman-Dutch law, which has evolved from the uncodified law of the Netherlands as it existed when the Cape of Good Hope was ceded to Great Britain.

It has been influenced by The bible of option strategies free download common law in procedures more than in substantive matters. Trial by jury was abolished in Black tribal chiefs and headmen have limited jurisdiction to hear cases in traditional courts. There are appeals courts, divorce courts, and children's courts for blacks. In self-governing black homelands, lower courts have been established by the legislative assemblies.

The judiciary has moved in the direction of more independence from the other branches with instances of alleged political interference with courts on the decline. Prospects have considerably improved for nonwhite law school graduates to receive "Articles of Clerkship" which qualify them for admission to the bar.

A new constitution went into effect partially in Februarywith complete implementation scheduled for The interim constitution provided for an independent judiciary and the authorities respect this provision in practice.

There is also a constitutional court as highest court for constitutional issues.

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It provides for due process, including the right to a fair, public trial, legal counsel, and the right to appeal. In South Africa had 55, active military personnel, with 60, reservists. The Army had 36, troops, with over main battle tanks, reconnaissance vehicles, 1, armored infantry fighting vehicles and 1, artillery pieces.

The total strength of the Navy was 4, personnel, in addition to 2, civilian prsonnel. The Air Force, with 9, personnel, had an estimated 50 to combat capable aircraft, that included 26 fighters and 12 fighter ground attack aircraft. Other aircraft included 12 assault helicopters. There is also a medical corps of 6, South Africa provided troops to UN peacekeeping efforts in three African countries. South Africa became a charter member of the United Nations on 7 November and has technically remained a member continuously, despite past disputes and international sanctions over apartheid and the country's unwillingness to place its League of Nations mandate, Namibia, under UN international trusteeship.

Namibia gained independence in South Africa is part of ECA and several nonregional specialized UN agencies, such as the FAO, the World Bank, IAEA, UNHCR, UNESCO, UNIDO, ILO, and the WHO.

The nation is also a member of the ACP Group, WTO, the African Development Bank, the New Partnership for African Development NEPADthe Commonwealth of Nations, G G, the Southern African Custom Union, and the Southern African Development Community. South Africa served as the African Union's first president from July to July The nation was diplomatically isolated from other states on the African continent after Angola, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe were constituted as black-ruled countries during — 80, leaving South Africa as the continent's only white-minority regime.

South African teams were excluded from international competition, such as the Olympic Games from Following changes in South Africa's political situation, the country was reinstated to international competition by the International Olympic Committee. South Africa has supported peace negotiations in a variety of African nation conflicts, including UN missions and operations in Ethiopia and Eritrea est.

The nation is part of the Nonaligned Movement and a member of the Zangger Committee and the Nuclear Suppliers Group London Group. The opening of the political process to all South Africans and the election of a new multiracial government in marked a turning point in South Africa's economic history.

With a modest agriculture sector though known for excellent fruits and winefabulous mineral wealth gold accounts for over one-third of exportsa diverse manufacturing sector centered in metals and engineering, and especially steel-related productsand growing financial services and tourism sectors, South Africa's influence extends well beyond its borders.

It has a mixed economy, with substantial government intervention and a number of state-owned enterprises existing jointly with a strong private sector. A chief characteristic of the private sector is the high concentration of ownership by a small group of integrated conglomerate structures. Real economic growth in the GDP fell from 1. Between and GDP increased steadily from 2. High unemployment, rigid labor laws, low skill levels, crime, and corruption hamper economic progress.

Emigration has also emerged as one of South Africa's challenges, as those South Africans who are highly skilled find better markets for their skills abroad, especially in AustraliaNew Zealandthe United Kingdom, Canadaand the United States. Foreign direct investment in remained below levels targeted by the government; plans were made to build a knowledge and technology-based economy to attract investment.

Structural economic changes and policies geared to lower inflation helped temper the effects on the South African economy of the global work from home jobs in sirsa downturn that began in A rise in interest rates and a strong rand contributed to a fall in inflation inbut so did an accounting error by the government, which caused many borrowers to pay more in interest on loans than they would have had the correct economic statistics been reported by the government.

Business activity and consumer confidence subsequently fell. The CIA defines GDP gbp to usd exchange rate table the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity PPP rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars.

The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4. The average inflation rate in was 4. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 3.

Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period to household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2. As ofSouth Africa's economically active population was estimated at As ofthe services sector accounted for Undefined occupations accounted for the remainder.

InSouth Africa's unemployment rate was estimated at bull put option spread Inunions had a total membership of about 3.

The Labor Relations Act provides protection to workers. The government does not interfere with collective bargaining.

The constitution provides for the rights to unionize forex trader ociation strike, both of which are reinforced by the Labor Relations Act of In industries and trades where employers and employees are not organized, the Minister of Labor, acting on the advice of the government-appointed wage board, may prescribe compulsory wages and conditions of employment.

As ofthe standard workweek was 45 hours. In addition, the law also authorized four months of maternity leave for women and time-and-a-half pay for overtime.

Some collective agreements provide for three weeks' annual leave, and many industries work a five-day week. Employers must provide satisfactory working conditions and accident-prevention measures.

Enforcement of safe working conditions is irregular although the government is making attempts to improve the means of enforcement. The National Economic Forum, stockland opening hours townsville christmas tripartite structure representing labor, business, and government, is involved in nurturing job creation and job training. There is no legally mandated national minimum wage, rather negotiations between labor and management set minimum wage standards industry by industry.

In addition, the Minister of Labor can set wages by sector. Employment of minors under 15 is illegal. Child labor laws are enforced in the formal economy, but in the agricultural and informal sectors, child labor is widespread. The Ministry of Welfare does allow exceptions to the child labor laws in some sectors of the economy, such as in the performing arts.

The worst drought of the 20th century in southern Africa resulted in near to total crop failure in — Many farmers subsequently abandoned the countryside for urban areas. Except for rice, tea, coffee, and cocoa, the country is typically self-sufficient in essential food production. The average annual growth rate of agricultural output was 0.

During — 04, crop production was up another 0. The principal crop is corn "mealies"which is grown mainly on the plateau of the Orange Free State and Transvaal. Wheat can be grown only in winter; production of wheat totaled 1, tons in An indigenous sorghum "Kaffir corn" is used to make beer and is also an important source of protein. Less important, but planted in considerable quantities, are the other winter cereals — barley, oats, and rye. Potato production totaled 1, tons in Sugarcane, indigenous to the Natal coastal belt, was grown before World War II — does the stock market close early the day before thanksgiving in quantities sufficient to export.

Increasing domestic demand after the war absorbed the total output, but with a rise in production and an expansion of the capacity of sugar mills, South Africa became a large sugar exporter.

Sugarcane production totaled 19, tons in Deciduous and citrus fruits, some of them exported, are also profitable. Vegetables, peanuts, sunflower seeds, groundnuts, soy beans, coffee, ginger, tobacco, cotton, and various types of fodder plants are used domestically.

In1, tons of grapes were produced. Wine is an important product; production in was estimated at over 91 million liters. Until the end of the 19th century, cattle were kept mainly for draft purposes and bred for strength and endurance; meat and fat buy mcdonalds stocks were provided by sheep.

The cattle gave little milk and yielded poor-quality meat, while the sheep gave only fat mutton and no wool. The introduction of foreign breeds and crossbreeding gradually improved the stock, providing excellent meat, wool of fairly good quality, and good milk yields.

The country's sheep breeds consist mainly of Merino for wool and Dorpes for mutton. Cattle breeds include the introduced Hereford and Aberdeen Angus as well as the indigenous Afrikaner. Dairy cows are mostly Fresian, forming a well-developed dairy industry. The livestock in included Output of fresh cow's milk in was 2. Meat production in included in tons: South Africa does not produce enough meat to satisfy domestic demand and typically imports live forex western union from Namibia and meat from Botswana.

After Morocco, South Africa is Africa's most important fishing nation. The Fisheries Development Corp. The forex kedy obchodovat fishing fleet is operated mainly from Cape Town harbor.

InSouth Africa's fishing fleet increased by 27 vessels broker richmond, richmond stock gross tons or larger.

The total catch for wastons, according to the FAO. Shoal fishing by purse-seine accounts for most of the volume. Anchovy, pilchard, mackerel, round herring, snoek, abalone, kingklip, rock lobster, oysters, and mussels are other important species.

One-third of the hake catch and nearly all of the abalone are exported. Anchovy, pilchard, and round herring are processed into fishmeal, fish oil, and canned fish. Rock lobster is caught mainly along the western and southern Cape coasts; about 2, tons of rock lobster were caught inwith much of it processed into frozen lobster tails for export.

South Africa ceased whaling in and is a member of the International Whaling Commission. Oyster farming at Knysna began decades ago. Interest in mariculture has grown in recent years and permits have been granted for farming abalone, prawns, red-bait, and mud crab. Besides commercial fishing, there are thousands of anglers who fish for recreation from the shore and small craft. There are size restrictions and limits for sport fishing. A total ban has been placed on the catching of four species: South Africa is sparsely wooded, with a wooded and forested area of about 8.

Cutting in indigenous forests is strictly controlled. Commercial forestry covers 1. South Africa is an important producer of wattle and wattle extract, used in the tanning of leather. The timber cut was 33, cu m 1. Sawn wood production was 2, cu m Wood is imported for furniture manufacture, railroad ties, and high-quality paper. Since the late 19th century, South Africa's economy has been based on the production and export of minerals, which, in turn, have contributed significantly to the country's industrial development.

South Africa was also the second-largest producer of zirconium and titanium minerals, as well as a major producer of cobalt, copper, iron ore, lead, nickel, silver, uranium, zinc, aggregate and sand, asbestos, dimension stone, fluorspar, lime, limestone, phosphate rock, sulfur, and vermiculite.

South Africa was self-sufficient in the vast majority of its mineral needs, the bulk of which were produced in the northern half of the country. South Africa was among screening stocks for day trading top five countries in terms of reserves, ranking first in reserves of andalusite, chromite, gold, manganese, PGMs, and vanadium. Inthe mining industry accounted for 7. The leading export earners in were in descending order: The production of iron, steel, chemicals, and fertilizers ranked among the country's top industries.

The output of PGMs platinum, palladium, rhodium, vanguard total stock market etf expense ratio, and others waskg. Production came almost exclusively from mines in the Bushveld Complex, north of Pretoria.

Anglo American Platinum Corp. Anglo Platinumin was the world's largest PGM producer. Primary gold output in waskg, down fromin Iron ore and concentrate output by metal content in was The Sishen Mine was previously owned by Iscor, South Africa's largest crude steel producer. Chromium output in gross weight was 7.

Mined copper output in was 89, metric tons preliminarydown frommetric tons in The country's total copper reserve base metal content was 13 million tons.

Antimony production in by gross weight was put at 9, metric tons preliminary. Proven and probable reserves of antimony amounted to 1. The country's total antimony reserve base wastons. Output of manganese ore and concentrate primarily metallurgical-grade, but also chemical was 3.

Total proven reserves were The country's total manganese reserve base was four billion tons. Preliminary production outputs for the other principal metals in were: South Africa also produced cobalt, lead, silver, uranium, and zinc.

Preliminary output of natural gem and industrial diamonds in were put at 5, carats and 7. The country's total diamond reserve base was 1, million carats. Alluvial diamonds were discovered along the Orange River inand surface diamonds, at Kimberley, in Preliminary output of other industrial minerals in included: South Africa also produced aluminosilicates andalusite, with a reserve base of The South African minerals industry operated on a free-enterprise, market-driven basis.

Government involvement was primarily confined to ownership of the national electric power supply and the national oil and gas exploration company. Mineral land holdings and production has historically been controlled either by the government or by private entities. However, under the new Minerals and Petroleum Resources Act, existing mineral rights will revert to the South African government, unless companies act within a five year period to convert "old order" exploration and mining rights into "new" rights under terms specified in the new legislation.

Sincethe minerals industry has short term investment options south africa a major corporate restructuring, or "unbundling," aimed at simplifying a complex system of interlocking ownership, at establishing separate core-commodity-focused profit centers, and at diversifying and rationalizing nonperforming assets.

The well-developed railway and port infrastructure was built mainly to transport mineral products, and minerals continued to constitute a major part of the nation's freight. There was also increased attention to environmental issues. South Africa is the second-largest energy producer on the African continent, surpassed only by Algeriaand is the continent's largest consumer of energy.

Coal is the primary energy source produced and consumed in South Africa. The country's recoverable coal reserves are the seventh-largest in the world, which in were estimated at InSouth Africa produced an estimated South Africa has only small proven reserves of oil. As of 1 Januarythe country's proven oil reserves were estimated at Inoil production was estimated atbarrels per day, of whichbarrels per day were synthetic.

The country's crude oil refining capacity, as of 1 Januarywas estimated atbarrels per day. Demand for oil in was estimated atbarrels per day, with net oil imports estimated atbarrels per day, for that same year. South Africa's proven reserves of natural gas, as of 1 Januarywere estimated at 1 billion cu ft, according to the Oil and Gas Journal.

Domestic consumption of natural gas and natural gas imports were each estimated by the South African Department of Minerals and Energy at 1. The bulk of South Africa's electric power generating capacity is based upon conventional thermal fuels. Inthe country's electric generating capacity was Electric generation totaled in totaled South Africa's demand for electricity incame to South Africa's synthetic fuels industry is highly developed and is backed by offshore condensate and natural gas production in Mossel Bay, and a plentiful supply of coal.

The South African Coal, Oil, and Gas Corporation Sasol is the world's leader in oil-from-coal technology. SASOL operates two coal gasification plants in Secunda and one in Sasalburg. SASOL has a capacity to producebarrels per day, mostly to the gasoline market. South Africa's other leading synthetic fuel producer is the Petroleum Oil and Gas Corporation of South Africa PetroSA with capacity of 50, barrels per day. The manufacturing sector has evolved over the past 70 years, beginning with light consumer industry in the s and expanding into heavy industry with the creation of ISCOR Iron and Steel Corporation of South Africa in Industry is localized in Gauteng, Western Cape, the Durban-Pinetown area of KwaZulu-Natal, and the Port Elizabeth-Uitenhage area of Eastern Cape.

The largest industrial sector is the metal products and engineering sector dominated by ISCOR, now privatized. South Africa is the world's largest gold, platinum, manganese, chromium, vanadium, alumino-sillicates, and titanium producer; and the second-largest of vermiculite and zirconium; third for fluorspar; fourth for antimony; and fifth for zinc, coal, lead, and uranium.

Companies like Columbus Stainless Steel and Billiton's Hillside Aluminum Smelter produce processed industrial minerals, instead of just primary commodities. A dip in gold prices during the late s threatened the gold mines, but only temporarily. Other than Swaziland, South Africa is the only African state to produce pulp and paper. The clothing and textiles sector and the electronics sector were experiencing strong growth inas was the construction sector, which employedpeople.

The chemical sector centers on sizeable fertilizer production and the Modderfontein ingles supermarket stockbridge ga factory. There are four oil refineries in South Africa, with a total production capacitybarrels per day.

Among South Africa's earliest research ventures was the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope, established by the British Admiralty in Societies of leading engineers, architects, chemists, metallurgists, and geologists were organized in the s, and the South African Association for the Advancement of Science was established in The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research founded in has 13 research divisions. The Atomic Energy Corporation established an experimental nuclear reactor in and has since directed the government's nuclear program.

Init was announced that its researchers had devised a new uranium-enrichment process, subsequently developed by the national Uranium Enrichment Corp. The Scientific Advisory Council to the Minister of National Education established in promotes the application of scientific knowledge and recommends national science policies and programs.

The Hartebeestheek Radio Astronomy Observatory's meterdiameter antenna was originally constructed to serve as a tracking station for NASA's Deep Space Network. In Johannesburg are located a geological museum, the Adler Museum of the History of Medicine, and the James Hall Museum of Transport. Botanical and zoological gardens are located, respectively, in Durban and Pretoria.

South Africa has 30 universities and colleges offering courses in basic and applied sciences. South Africa has largely dismantled its old economic system that involved extensive government involvement in the domestic economy through state-owned enterprises.

Retail establishments are extremely diverse, ranging from local convenience stores and specialty shops to department stores, supermarkets, and chain stores. There are some wholesale outlet stores as well and hypermarkets are beginning to find a place in some suburban areas. In rural areas, merchants sponsor cooperative stores.

The number of franchises continues to grow, with about firms represented as of The government maintains price controls on petroleum products and certain food products. Business hours for most offices and shops are from 8: Banks are usually open from 9 am to 3: Gold, diamonds and other metals and minerals are the most valuable export commodities.

The share of gold as a percentage of total merchandise exports fell from Inprocessed primary product exports exceeded those of gold for the first time. The top four currency converter trading foreign exchange rate oanda in are as follows: The United States and South Africa established bilateral trade agreements in the late s.

Main destinations of exports in were as follows: Gold invariably represents the stock options in gnucash majority of the country's international reserves, but decreased demand for gold lowered world prices in the s, slowing financial flows.

This can be attributed in part to the depreciation of the rand, which strengthened the competitiveness of South African manufactures. Petroleum imports rose that year as well. However, between and South Africa registered a healthy and positive trade balance.

The South African Reserve Bank SARBthe central bank of issue, began operations inand in assumed liability for the outstanding notes of the commercial banks. It is the fourth oldest central bank to have been established outside Europe. It purchases and disposes of the entire gold output.

In Septemberbecause of a net outflow of capital arising from South Africa's declaration of a state of emergency, a two-tier foreign-exchange amanda moneymaker was adopted by the bank, involving a commercial rand for current transactions and a financial rand for investments or disinvestments by nonresidents. At the same time, certain debt payments, mainly to foreign banks, were frozen.

Limited payments were resumed in Apriland the two-tier foreign-exchange system was discarded. The top four banks — Standard Bank Investment Corp. Foreign interest grew with groups such as Citibank, Morgan Guaranty, and Standard Chartered, setting up and targeting the business end of the market. Although foreign banks are not allowed to accept deposits, over 41 fully licensed institutions, 15 local branches of foreign banks, and 61 representative offices of foreign banks were operating in South Africa in Offshore lending is popular.

Since the commercial banks have restricted themselves to traditional functions, many other institutions have been established to make loans or investments to royal mail employee buy shares allocation economic growth and development.

The government has sponsored financial institutions such as the Development Bank of South Africa, the Corporation for Public Deposits, the Industrial Development Corp. IDCthe Fisheries Development Corp. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 8. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 9.

The Johannesburg Stock Exchange JSE ranks 10th in the world in market capitalization. A total of firms were listed on the JSE that same year. On 8 Novemberthe JSE underwent its "Big Bang" when the Stock Exchange Control Act came into effect, changing the system under which the market had operated for years.

New capital adequacy requirements placed major financial obligations on broking firms, and the easy fixed-commission system for brokers disappeared.

Most visibly, the traditional trading floor-the open outcry market-became a thing of the past as firms carried out all their trading by computer. Restructuring of the stock exchange also allowed banks to enter the securities markets as stockbrokers for the first time.

However, market capitalization is now at about half of that peak level in Automobile third-party liability, unemployment insurance and workers' compensation insurance are all compulsory, the last of which is a virtual government monopoly.

Other insurance companies include Old Mutual and Sanlam. Life insurance companies and pension funds are controlled by the Registrar of Financial Institutions. The main long-term capital institutions are the pension funds and life assurance companies, which invest mainly on the JSE secondary market.

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The fiscal year runs from 1 April to 31 March. The minister of finance presents the budget to parliament in March for authorization of expenditures and imposition of the necessary taxes. Inthe ANC inherited a government that owned about half of all capital assets, one-quarter of them parastatal corporations.

Since then, privatization has moved slowly, but steadily. The International Monetary Fund IMF reported that inthe most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were r, million and expenditures were r, million. As of 1 JanuarySouth Africa's territorial system of taxation or source-based system was replaced with one based on worldwide incomes for resident companies, including resident branches of foreign companies. In order to preserve some of South Africa's appeal as an offshore location for international headquarters, a separate regime for nonresident International Holding Companies IHCs is maintained which allows for income from foreign subsidiaries not to be counted in the IHC's tax liability under Controlled Foreign Entity provisions in the tax law.

As ofthe standard corporate tax in South Africa consisted of two parts: Those branches and other nonresident companies are not subject to the STC. Dividends distributed out of mining income by oil and gas companies are also exempt from the STC. Dividends from South African sources paid to a resident individual by a South African company are tax-exempt, but, as of 23 Februarydividends from foreign sources received by residents are taxed at The maximum effective rate for companies that distribute all their after-tax profits as dividends is The transfer of property is tax on a progressive scale depending on the value of the property.

However, certain fuels, exports, some farming goods and basic foodstuffs, and international transport are zero-rated. Residential rents, educational services, some financial services and domestic passenger transport are exempt from the VAT. Other taxes include provincial and city taxes. Although South Africa has signed GATT and has been liberalizing import controls with the intention of eventually removing them completely, some classes of imports are still subject to licenses and control regulations.

Many goods enter South Africa duty-free. There are six levels of tariffs: South Africa maintains a common customs area with Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, and the black homelands of Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei, and Venda, through the South African Customs Union. The South African Development Community intended to open a free trade area between member countries by Ad valorem excise duties are levied on office machinery, film, and luxury consumer goods.

Export licenses are required for a number of products. Despite a considerable increase in recent years in domestic savings available for investment, foreign capital investment plays a significant role in South African economic development, and a number of manufacturing and industrial concerns have been established by the United Kingdom, the United States, and continental European companies since World War II. UK capital has been invested primarily in manufacturing, heavy engineering, and in the development of new gold fields in Transvaal and the Orange Free State.

US investments are mainly in mining and manufacturing, and in wholesale and retail trade. Some American companies accounted for about one-fifth of total foreign investment in South Africa as of However, between andthe number of US companies with direct investments in South Africa dropped from to Inthe United States and the EEC banned new investment in South Africa. The establishment of a multiracial government in and the lifting of sanctions led to an increase in foreign investment in South Africa.

Barclays' purchase is the largest single FDI inflow into South Africa since the transition to multiparty rule in The inflows from both Barclays and Vodafone have stimulated foreign interest in South Africa and signal a vote of confidence for the country's political and economic prospects for the medium and long term. The United Kingdom has been the largest investor with almost half of the total, followed by the United States, Germany, the Netherlands, Malaysiaand Switzerland.

Manufacturing and business services gained the lion's share of FDI, led by telecommunications; major investors included Petronas, SDC Communications, Dow Chemicals, Telecom Malaysia, Coca-Cola, and Lafarge. Tremendous changes in the structure of the economy are required as well to relieve the pressures of poverty and inequality which resulted from apartheid. A realistic strategy that attends to popular expectations and aspirations as well as to sound economic principles will look to reducing tariffs and other restrictive practices, linking wages and output, ending exchange controls, reforming taxes, and optimizing welfare allocations.

The government implemented a Growth, Employment, and Redistribution GEAR plan to cover the years — The plan was successful in bringing macroeconomic stability to the country, but formal employment continued to decline, and wealth remained unequally distributed along racial lines.

South Africa has what may be called a dual economy — one comparable to industrialized nations and another comparable to developing countries. Trade liberalization increased from the early s to the early s. The Mbeki government in maintained a cautious fiscal policy, but due to the global economic slowdown, growth remained at 2. This was clearly achieved as inflation was estimated at 4. The government continues to be committed to responsible fiscal management while increasing spending on infrastructure, social services and socio-economic "upliftment" programs.

Inflation has steadily declined. However, unemployment in was estimated at The government adopted plans to encourage development in specific regions and in small and medium enterprise development, in part to promote growth and the creation of jobs. South Africa is a member of the Southern African Customs Union SACU and the Southern African Development Community SADC. South Africa has a comprehensive system of social legislation, which includes unemployment insurance, workers' compensation, old age pensions, disability pensions, war veterans' pensions, pensions for the blind, maternity grants, and family allowances.

The first statutory benefits were initiated inand the current system was updated in The cost of most of these benefits is borne by the national government, but the cost of industrial accident insurance is borne by employers, while contributions to the unemployment insurance fund are made by employers, employees, and the government.

The retirement age is 65 for men and 60 for women. The government funds assistance to families of limited means. The ANC government of national unity sought to provide more social services for its black constituents within the constraints of a weakened economy. Its top priorities are housing, health, education, and the creation of more jobs in the formal economic sector.

Despite legal protection, sex discrimination is still widespread, especially in connection with economic issues including wage disparity, credit access and property rights. Domestic abuse is widespread, and victims who seek redress are not treated adequately by law enforcement, medical personnel, or the judicial system. The incidence of rape is extremely high due to general lack of security and the prevailing attitude condoning violence against women.

There are many governmental and nongovernmental organizations monitoring and promoting human rights for women. Although South Africa's human rights record has improved, there are continued reports of detainees dying in custody. Criminal activity is widespread, and vigilante and mob justice is increasing. Prison conditions are harsh.

As ofthe South African government increased its spending in the public and private sectors of health care. South Africa's governmental policy has been directed toward a more streamlined and equitable public health service to bridge the country's social and ideological divisions. Emphasis on better health care resulted in numerous projects to expand and modernize existing hospitals and clinics, as well as build new ones.

There was also emphasis on preventive health care, as well as a greater demand for laboratory analysis and therapeutic equipment and disposables. Most electronic and high-tech equipment is imported. Provincial administrations maintain most major hospitals and receive subsidies from the national government.

Hospital care is free for those unable to bear the costs, but medical treatment is generally conducted on a private basis. Large sectors of the population live in conditions nearer to those of a developing country.

There are hospitals, with Baragwanath Hospital near Johannesburg the largest in southern Africa. As ofthere were an estimated 69 physicians, nurses, 10 dentists, and 24 pharmacists perpeople. Chains of independent hospitals have been established. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 7.

There are medical schools at the universities of Cape Town, Stellenbosch, Witwatersrand, Pretoria, Natal, and the Orange Free State. Between andmost black medical students attended the medical school at the University of Natal. In addition, the Medical University of Southern Africa near Pretoria was opened for black students in Following the introduction of democracy inthe government sought to reverse the discrimination against blacks by building community clinics by the year However, the money to fund these clinics comes from the medical school budgets funded publicly.

The South African Institute for Medical Research in Johannesburg is well known for its studies of silicosis and other diseases to which mine workers are subject. There were an estimateddeaths from AIDS in An increasing percentage of those infected are infants and young children and it is estimated that nearly one-fourth of pregnant women are HIV positive, although the rate of infection varies widely among provinces.

In some hospitals more than one-third of the beds are occupied by AIDS patients. Leprosy had been reduced to less than 1 per , but malaria and tuberculosis still cause serious problems. Between andthere were about 15, deaths due to political and ethnic violence. As ofthe crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, Average life expectancy was Infant mortality in was In the late s, there was an explosive growth of shacks and shantytowns surrounding South Africa's major urban areas.

In the housing backlog was estimated to be 1. This backlog and demand translated into the need to builddwelling units a year in the last years of the 20th century, or roughly 1, units per working day; however, only about one-tenth of that number — 25, dwelling units — were built each year, leaving the country with a serious housing shortage.

Most of the black townships and squatter settlements lack the basic infrastructure and services of water, sewage, and electricity. Efforts to solve South Africa's housing problem must focus not only on construction, but on servicing current and prospective sites by building roads and providing electricity, sanitation, and water. At the census, there were about 11, households counted, which translates into about the same number of dwelling units.

The challenge facing the post-apartheid government has been to create an educational system that provides quality education to all citizens of South Africa. The educational legacy left by the apartheid government has not been easy to dismantle. Literacy rates among blacks remain low, and educational facilities in the townships and rural areas need to be upgraded. During the apartheid government, education for whites was free and compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16 while attendance was not generally compulsory for blacks.

After the Soweto riots ofthe national government increased expenditures for black education, and black student enrollment did rise sharply.

The government reported by the early s that primary and secondary schools enrolled about one million white students; 5. The Government of National Unity established a National Ministry of Education in and an educational system comprised of nine provincial subsystems was developed. National policies set clear educational guidelines, and the Provincial Legislatures have been accorded significant authority in setting specific priorities and policies for that province.

InPresident Mandela launched the Presidential Lead Project on Developing the Culture of Learning and Teaching. The program revised school governance structures, increasing school attendance and renovating hundreds of schools around the country. Education is now compulsory for nine years, which is covered by six years of primary school and three years of junior secondary school. Students may then enter either a two-year technical school program or a three-year general senior secondary program.

The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about South Africa has 21 universities and 15 technikons that provide tertiary level vocational training. The adult literacy rate for was estimated at about As ofpublic expenditure on education was estimated at 5.

The National Library of South Africa is made up of two branches: The University of Witwatersrand's main collection holds over one million volumes. Major public libraries are located in Johannesburgvolumes and Cape Town 1. The Kaffrarian Museum in King William's Town has imposing collections of indigenous animals.

The National Museum in Bloemfontein contains an ictidosaur skeleton and the Florisbad human fossil skull. The East London Museum houses the first coelacanth to be caught the entire family had previously been thought to be extinct.

The South African National Gallery is in Cape Town. Founded init houses an extensive European collection and well as one of Africa's finest collections of contemporary African art. The South African Cultural History Museum is also in Cape Town, as is the Castle Military Museum, which opened in Robben Island, 12 kilometers from Cape Town, is a former prison and is now a museum. Johannesburg has several archaeological museums as well as the University Art Galleries of the University of Witwatersrand.

Pretoria houses the Kruger Museum, chronicling the life of Paul Kruger; the Natural Cultural History Museum; and the Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology. The government operates the postal, telegraph, and telephone services through the Department of Posts and Telecommunications. Inthere were an estimated mainline telephones for every 1, people. The same year, there were approximately mobile phones in use for every 1, people. The South African Broadcasting Corp.

SABCa semigovernmental organization, offers transmissions in English, Afrikaans, and nine Bantu languages. It derives its income from listeners' licenses and from its commercial services. External broadcasting services are operated by the Voice of South Africa.

The country's first television service was begun in January under government auspices. In a separate channel began broadcasting in native languages. There are several privately held television and radio stations. As ofthere were 15 AM and FM radio stations and television broadcast stations, with transmissions in English, Afrikaans, and four Bantu languages.

Inthere were an estimated radios and television sets for every 1, people. The same year, there were There were secure Internet servers in the country in The English and Afrikaans populations have their own newspapers, distinguished not only by language but also by the variety and slant of news.

Nearly all newspapers in South Africa are published by members of the Newspaper Press Union NPU. Its main function is to hear and decide complaints against the press in cases where the complaints do not fall under the jurisdiction of the courts. The Media Council, established by the NPU, seeks to maintain editorial standards and to deal with infringements of the NPU press code.

The largest daily newspapers with language of publication and circulations are: The Sowetan English, The Star English, Beeld Afrikaans, Die Burger Afrikaans, Cape Argus English, 85,and The Daily News English, 71, The three largest-circulation Sunday newspapers are the English-language Sunday Timesand Sunday Tribuneand the Afrikaans-language RapportIlanga and Umafrika are Zulu-language weeklies. About local newspapers appear weekly or biweekly.

Magazines and general periodicals are divided equally between Afrikaans and English. The constitution provides for free speech and a free press, and the government now is said to respect these rights. News coverage and editorial opinion is vigorous and unfettered.

The cooperative movement began before the consummation of the Union, concentrating then as now on marketing agricultural produce. The movement's rapid advance, however, dates fromwhen the first Cooperative Societies Act was passed. The Agricultural Research Council is an important group for the advancement of the farming industry. Other similar groups include the Sugar Milling Research Institute, the South African Sugarcane Research Institute, and the ARC-Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops.

The South African Federated Chamber of Industries is the chief employers' organization. The Association of Chambers of Commerce ASSOCOM was formed in to promote commerce and industry in South Africa. In the South African Chamber of Business SACOB was formed by the merger of the Association of Commerce and Industry and the South African Federated Chamber of Industries. One hundred and two chambers of commerce and industry are members of SACOB. To provide special aid to Afrikaans-speaking businesspeople, the Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut was established in Pretoria in It now assists all Afrikaner businesses involved in commerce, finance, and mining.

Membership is offered if at least half the capital of a firm is owned by Afrikaners. The Royal Society of South Africa, founded inis the leading scholarly organization.

The South African Academy of Science and Arts was founded in and is based in Arcadia. The Geological Society of South Africa founded in has published important research in its transactions, and its influence extends beyond South Africa.

The African Music Society, an international organization that specializes in the recording of music of all parts of Africa, has its headquarters near Johannesburg. Shakespeare Society of Southern Africa is based in Grahamstown.

Other organizations have been established for studies in Afrikaans, archaeology, economics, medicine, technology, and other fields. Groups for hobbyists and other amateur actives are also available, such as the All Breeds Cat Club, the Cape Lancia Club a car cluband the Federation of Rose Societies of South Africa R. Organizations dedicated to health and welfare include the Association of Societies for Occupational Safety and Health, Health Systems Trust — South Africa, the South African Medical Research Council, the Democratic Nursing Organization of South Africa, and the Colleges of Medicine of South Africa.

The South African Medical Association promotes research and education on health issues and works to establish common policies and standards in healthcare. There are several other associations dedicated to research and education for specific fields of medicine and particular diseases and conditions, such as the Cancer Association of South Africa and Diabetes South Africa. There are a number of sports associations throughout the country.

Sports associations promote amateur competition among athletes of all ages for a variety of pastimes. Women's organizations include the ANC Women's League, the African Gender Institute, National Council of Women of South Africa, the Nisaa Institute for Women's Development, and programs through the Office on the Status of Women.

Black Sash Trust is an organization, primarily of women, dedicated to promoting human rights and civil liberties through the principles of democracy. There are several national environmental associations in the country, including Birdlife South Africa, Endangered Wildlife Trust, the Grassland Society of Southern Africa, Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa, African Conservation Trust, and the Environmental Monitoring Group.

National organizations promoting causes of social justice include the Friedrich Naumann Foundation — Africa Regional Office and the Legal Resources Centre. There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, Caritas, Habitat for Humanity, the Society of St.

Vincent de Paul, UNICEF, and Amnesty International. The tourism industry is based on private enterprise, but the government oversees tourist facilities through the South African Tourist Corporation, which also promotes tourism abroad. In addition to the principal cities and many ocean beaches, popular attractions include the Kruger National Park, situated in the northeast, on the Mozambique and Zimbabwe borders, and several game reserves; the Castle of Good Hope fortress at Cape Town built during — 82 ; and the Kimberley Mine Museum at the site of the famous Big Hole diamond mine.

Entertainment facilities include symphony halls, theaters, movies, nightclubs, and discos. Among popular pastimes are golf, tennis, bowls lawn bowlinghunting, horse racing, rugby, football soccercricket, and water sports. Foreign nationals who travel to South Africa must have a valid passport. Visas are required for visitors from all countries except the United States, Japan, Scandinaviaand most Western European and Commonwealth Countries.

Among the most famous tribal leaders in what is now South Africa were Shaka —who built the Zulu into a powerful nation, and Cetewayo d. Other outstanding figures of 19th-century South Africa were Stephanus Johannus Paulus Oom Paul Kruger —president of the Transvaal and leader of the Boers, and British-born Cecil John Rhodes —entrepreneur and empire builder, after whom the Rhodesias now Zambia and Zimbabwe were named.

Jan Christiaan Smuts —statesman and military leader, was one of the great men of the first half of the 20th century. He and two other prime ministers of Boer descent — Louis Botha — and James Barry Munnik Hertzog — — attempted to merge the two white nationality groups in a common loyalty to the British Commonwealth. Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd — 66Nationalist prime minister from until his assassination, vigorously enforced separate development of the races and created the black homelands.

His successor, Balthazar Johannes Vorster — 83served as prime minister from until his elevation to the presidency in ; he resigned in the following year because of a political scandal. Pieter Willem Botha b. Frederik Willem de Klerk b. Among the best-known South African writers in the English language was Olive Emily Albertina Schreiner —whose Story of an African Farm has become a classic.

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A collection of short stories about Afrikaner farmers, The Little Karoo, by Pauline Smith —is regarded as a masterpiece. South African authors of novels and short stories such as Sarah Gertrude Millin Liebson, b. Russia—Alan Stewart Paton — 88Sir Laurens Van der Post — 96Peter Abrahams b. Ignatius Roy Dunnachie Campbell — 57 was an eminent South African poet, and his friend William Charles Franklyn Plomer — 73 was a highly regarded novelist, poet, essayist, and critic.

Well-known authors and poets in the Afrikaans language are Cornelis Jacob Langenhoven —author of the national anthem; Christian Frederick Louis Leipoldt — ; N. Volschenck — is sometimes called the "father of South African art," and Anton Van Wouw b. Netherlands, — is called the "doyen" of South African sculpture. Other artists include the painters Robert Gwelo Goodman b. England, —Jacob Hendrik Pierneef —and Walter W. England, — 82also an authority on Bushman art; and sculptor Coert Laurens Steynberg — Other noted South Africans are historian George McCall Theal b.

Canada, — ; the physical anthropologist Raymond Arthur Dart b. Australia, — ; Clement Martyn Doke b. England, —an authority on Bantu philology; the social anthropologist Isaac Schapera — 86 ; Louis Franklin Freed b. Lithuania, — 81a specialist on tropical diseases; and pioneer open-heart surgeon, Christiaan Neething Barnard — Lord Henry de Villiers of Wynberg — was chief justice of Cape Colony and of the Union of South Africa.

South Africa's first Nobel Prize winner for peace in was Chief Albert John Luthuli —a former president of the ANC, who maintained a policy of nonviolence and of cooperation between whites and blacks.

Desmond Mpilo Tutu b. As archbishop of Cape Town, he became the Anglican primate for southern Africa in He became South Africa's first president elected in fully-representative democratic elections.

Oliver Tambo — 93the president of the ANC sincedirected the group from exile. Another outspoken critic of the government was the Rev. More conciliatory toward the regime was Gatsha Buthelezi b. South Africa has no territories or colonies. South Africa once maintained a civil administration and a military presence in Namibia South West Africa. Namibia, a sovereign state, is discussed under its own heading elsewhere in this volume. The New South Africa in Africa. My Vision of the Future.

Weidenfeld and Nicolson, Race, Class, and the Changing Division of Labor under Apartheid. Fox, Roddy and Kate Rowntree. The Geography of South Africa in a Changing World. Oxford University Press, Opposition in South Africa: The Leadership of Z. Matthews, Nelson Mandela, and Stephen Biko. De Beers, Diamonds and the World. Farrar Straus Giroux, Colonial South Africa and the Origins of the Racial Order. University Press of Virginia, The Czech Republic, South Africa and Chile. The Power of Apartheid: State, Power, and Space in South African Cities.

Ending Autocracy, Enabling Democracy: The Tribulations of Southern Africa, — World Peace Foundation, Saunders, Christopher and Nicholas Southey. Historical Dictionary of South Africa. A History of South Africa. Yale University Press, Anatomy of a Miracle: The End of Apartheid and the Birth of the New South Africa. The Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid. Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography.

Retrieved June 20, from Encyclopedia. PretoriaCape TownDurban, JohannesburgBloemfontein. Benoni, Boksburg, Germiston, Kimberley, Krugersdorp, Ladysmith, Paarl, Pietermaritzburg, Port Elizabeth, Roodepoort, SowetoSprings, Vereeniging, Welkom.

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report for South Africa. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http: South Africa, a country of stark beauty and diverse cultures, provides an exciting and dynamic work environment.

With the end of apart-heid, South Africa's new government has embarked on a historic effort to build a multi-racial, sustainable, market-oriented democracy. The success or failure of this effort will have enormous implications for the rest of Africa and for the world. Our official objectives are concentrated on support for a successful South African transition. South Africa is a large country, about twice the size of Texasand consists of an extensive interior plateau altitudes range from 3, to 6, feet with a narrow coastal plain.

The climate is moderate with sunny days and cool nights. Latest estimates put South Africa's population at The country has eleven official languages, including English, AfrikaansZulu, Xhosa, Sotho, and Tswana.

English is widely understood even by those who do not speak it as a native language. With the most sophisticated economy on the continent, South Africa has a highly developed financial and physical infrastructure.

Much of the country's wealth originally came from gold and diamond mines, but today South Africa exports a wide variety of manufactured products.

Despite South Africa's impressive economic achievement, gross inequities exist along racial lines in the distribution of wealth and job opportunities. These disparities reflect the South African government's previous policy of apartheida system of legally mandated racial segregation favoring the white community.

Although the present government has dismantled the legal basis for such racial discrimination, apartheid's legacy of widespread black poverty will take years to eliminate completely. Besides a challenging work environment, South Africa offers a host of unique vacation experiences.

The vineyards of the Cape, wildlife of Kruger National Park, and beaches of Durban are just some of the country's tourist attractions. Travel is easy, and people are helpful wherever you go. South Africa's combination of physical beauty and a changing society will make your stay rewarding.

Pretoria is the administrative capital of South Africa. Greater Pretoria has about 1, people Source: Central Statistical Service, Census. It is located in Gauteng Province, 35 miles Northeast of Johannesburg, 30 miles from Johannesburg International Airport, and miles from Durban, the nearest port city in South Africa.

It lies in a long valley edged by several ridges. The rural surrounding area consists of undulating veld with low trees scattered over the landscape. Aside from the Iscor Steelworks and automobile assembly plants located outside the city, and a few small industrial establishments, Pretoria is mainly a government town with enough shops and department stores to cater to its population. Schools, hospitals, doctors and dentists are in adequate supply.

Pretoria is a quiet, modern city offering current movies, plays, operas, ballets, and concerts. Two universities, the Transvaal Museum and the Transvaal Province Library, an excellent zoo, sports grounds, including several golf courses, and many beautiful parks provide cultural enjoyment and relaxation. Sundays in Pretoria are spent visiting friends, participating in sports, or indulging in the national pastime of the "braaivleis" barbecue.

In the city, flea markets and open-air art and craft markets are often held as well. Aside from the U.

Embassy staff and their families, other Americans live in Pretoria, including church and missionary representatives and American spouses of South Africans. Most American business representatives live in the Johannesburg suburbs. Diplomatic representatives of the U. Atteridgeville, Mamelodi, Soshanguve are the historically black townships surrounding Pretoria where the majority of the black citizens of the Greater Pretoria Metropolitan area still live.

Atteridgeville is 7 miles, Mamelodi is 15 miles, Soshanguve, Ga-Rankuwa, Winterveldt and Temba are all about 25 miles away. Nearly all residents work in Pretoria, traveling by bus, train, or taxi. A few drive personal vehicles. Lenasia, about 10 miles south of Pretoria, is home to many of the area's citizens of Asian descent. Each of these communities has its own town council and civic association and participates in the regional "super government," the Greater Pretoria Metropolitan Council.

Unemployment is high in the townships and standards of living significantly lower than in Pretoria proper. There is also a serious shortage of housing in the townships, which has given rise to large informal settlements or "squatter camps" on the periphery of established areas. Township councils resisted squatting initially, but because they did not have houses for the squatters, they began to provide water and toilets for them. Basic foods, locally produced baby foods and infant formulas are all available.

Baby food is widely available, however all dried cereals contain sugars. Fresh fruit and vegetables of all kinds are available most of the year.

Dairy products, including butter, cheeses, eggs and whole, low fat and skim milk are all readily available. Several good quality South African and British brands are available in the major metropolitan cities.

South African, as well as imported, coffees and teas are excellent and comparable in price to those sold in the U. Iced teas and ice tea mixes are rarely available. Ice cream lovers will satisfy their taste buds with higher quality brands, however, sorbets and sherbets are seldom available. Most spices are available, however, the gourmet chef may wish to bring familiar brands and varieties with them. Extracts are not available. White and brown sugars are both coarse, with the exception of powdered sugar, which is equivalent to that sold in the States.

Pancake syrups are limited in variety, and the quality is not the same as that available in the States. Corn syrup is not available. Other baking items cake mixes, bread mixes, pancake mixes, pie crusts and crumbs are not available. Meats beef, pork, lamb, chicken are plentiful and reasonably priced.

Seafood is widely available in coastal cities and is shipped fresh or frozen into inland areas. Turkeys small fresh or frozen medium or large are available primarily in November and December. Solid shortening Criscostuffing mixes, pumpkin pie filling, and certain ethnic foods are not available on the open market.

Breakfast cereal varieties are very limited, and many of the brands sold in the States are not available. Liquors, beers, and wines, domestic and international brands are widely available and reasonably priced. South Africa is increasingly becoming known for its wide variety of great wines. South African men and women dress similarly to Americans and Europeans.

Imported stylish European shoes are available although at a much higher cost. American shoe widths, especially narrow, are limited. Persons with small or very large feet may have difficulty finding shoes that fit. Although a winter coat is usually not necessary, some southern areas are colder in winter, often having frost and snow. Jackets, all-weather coats or wraps would be a good investment for use in winter months in any area of South Africa.

Shoe and clothing sizes differ from those in the States. Men's styles follow current trends. Wool and lightweight business suits are common.

Winter wear is needed about four months a year, except for the southernmost and eastern area of the country, where the weather is colder for about three months a year.

For business, most men wear suits or sports jackets and slacks. Dress shirts are available, however, better short sleeved shirts are seldom sold. Although you may purchase or rent tuxedos and dinner jackets, it is recommended that you bring your own formal wear.

Hosiery is of a lesser quality than that available in the States. The sizes are different and much more costly. It is advisable for ladies to bring an ample supply of hosiery. Accessories and undergarments are available at a higher price, but may vary in sizes and the quality may not compare to that of the States. Children's clothing is available, however it is expensive. It is suggested that you bring needed clothing items with you or purchase them through U.

Toiletries, household supplies, medicines, prescription drugs, etc. Cosmetics and perfumes mostly imported are expensive. It is recommended that you bring a supply of your favorite brands. Paper and plastic products tissue, napkins, foil, freezer bags, etc. Many brands of disposable diapers are available, with quality comparable to those sold in the U.

Disposable baby bottle liners are not available. Locally made toys are expensive. However, many Americans shop through catalogues. For on-time delivery, it is recommended that you shop early, especially during the busy holiday season. There is a "Toys 'R. Many American and British brands of cigarettes are manufactured and sold in South Africa. Tobacco is readily available at a cheaper price than in the U. It is recommended that you purchase a supply of postage stamps prior to arrival or order them from the U.

Postal Service's STAMPS Service Center. Many domestics are experienced and proficient. Some speak limited English and require specific instructions and directions. The best well-trained cooks command good wages and are rarely available.

Less experienced cooks require considerable instruction and demonstration in preparing and serving food. Some domestics are accustomed to performing only the tasks for which they are hired. A cook would not be expected to perform cleaning and laundry tasks. Most people employ domestics who are not specialists, but workers who can perform various chores. Various religious denominations are represented in South Africa.

The Dutch Reformed Church, whose members include most of the Afrikaans-speaking white population, conducts services in Afrikaans. Catholic churches offer Mass in English, Afrikaans, and many African languages. Protestant churches other than the Dutch Reformed include Anglican, BaptistMethodist, Presbyterian, and Congregational.

The Zion Christian Church, Christian Science, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventist, Greek Orthodox, and Jewish synagogues also conduct services. There are also Hindu temples and Muslim mosques. The American International School of Johannesburg AISJ is located midway between Johannesburg and Pretoria. It is situated on 67 acres of rolling hills. The school was established in and is a non-profit institution.

It is the only school in this area, which offers a U. AISJ has an outstanding student-teacher ratio of one teacher to ten students. A limited program of physical education and sports activities is offered. Some are coeducational, most are single sex.